Part 1
"No man can know where he is going unless he knows exactly how he arrived at his present place"
-Maya Angelou
Eric Kashambuzi gives a befitting title to his book on food security in Africa: The Paradox of Hunger and Abundance. The heading, though seemingly contradictory, aptly describes the inconsistencies that form the realities of life in the continent. Africa is as rich as it is diverse. Mineral wealth exists in plenty beneath her bosom. Oil flows generously from the West African coast, Diamond is mined through intricate shafts dug deep in the earth in the continent’s south, and columbite-tantalite (coltan) reserves in Congo are exploited to help satisfy the ever -burgeoning global consumer electronics market. Her surface is filled with portions of breathtaking natural beauty. Her rolling hills and domineering mountain peaks, deep valleys and expansive plains, populated by richly diverse wildlife, offer irresistible allurements to both local and international tourists. She has produced brilliant academics, visionary leaders, talented artists and shrewd business people.
Yet, her deceptive beauty hides dark tales of inequality, oppression and conflict. Millions live under the unforgiving embrace of poverty, without access to food, decent housing or proper income. They are born poor, grow up in poverty, and pass on this damning heritage to their posterity. Ironically, some live atop natural wealth so precious that if rightly exploited, could change their prospects forever. Their existence is embittered by incessant conflicts propagated by warlords and political strongmen, keen on gaining control of and profiteering from her vast reserves.
But who is responsible? Is it her leaders, who are constantly called out on allegations of corruption and abuse of office? What of her economic elite, some of whom have been accused of propagating unethical business practices by maintaining and exploiting strong ties with government officials, thus allowing them access to lucrative deals with inflated prices set to cater for kickbacks. Can we, by looking back at the continent’s tempestuous past, find solutions to the perennial problems that have beset her, and possibly create a better way moving forward?
The Golden Age of Africa
Most traditional African societies lived without any form of centralized political organization. Relations were primarily based on close family and kinship ties. Community leaders were often composed of a council of elders who had the last say whenever important decisions were to be made. Trade, though already in existence within the continent, was revolutionized by the introduction of the camel in the 4th century. Trade links were thus established between Sub-Saharan Africa and the Northern part of the continent, which connected with the Mediterranean. The impact that this had on the political and economic landscape was immense. Communities that lay across important trade routes used their advantageous positions to fund the growth and expansion of vast empires. Of these political behemoths, three stand out: Ghana, Mali and Songhai.
Ghana (9th-13th Century)
The kingdom of Ghana was located between modern southeastern Mauritania and Western Mali. Although the timeline of its origins has been disputed due to scanty archaeological and written records, the immense wealth the Empire amassed is beyond doubt. Ghana had gold and iron deposits which it used to finance and equip its vast army. The precious minerals were also exchanged by the political and social elite for luxury goods. Its possession of camels allowed its merchants to effectively participate in trade. Additionally, its dominance and control over the West African trade enabled it to profit greatly from the taxes it imposed on goods flowing in and out of the kingdom. Ghana’s political elite came from the Soninke family and was headed by a king who doubled up as the spiritual leader. He appointed officials who helped him manage the kingdom’s economy, including the revenues that flowed into state coffers from trade. The monarch also had exclusive rights to possession of gold nuggets which gave him absolute control of the gold market, allowing him to rein in on the supply and value of the precious commodity. The Empire, however, began to decline in the 12th Century. Drought and internal strife broke out through the state already weakened by an invasion from the Almoravids of North Africa. This led some already subdued chiefdoms within the kingdom to break away and declare independence. The fall of Ghana eventually paved the way for one of the greatest empires in Africa, Mali.
Mali (13th -15th Century)
Of all African empires during the Golden Age, Mali stands without rival. Its wealth and popularity are the stuff of legend. The kingdom was established around 1200 by the then ruling Malinke people under the first leader Mansa (King) Sundiata, who earned the nickname, ‘Lion Prince’. His empire stretched from the West Atlantic coast for thousands of miles inwards and was majorly made up of subdued chiefdoms who paid tribute to the kingdom. Yet the story of Mali’s prosperity cannot be complete without the tale of Sundiata’s grand-nephew, Mansa Musa.
This famous ruler put Mali firmly on the map when, during his pilgrimage to Mecca, he passed by Egypt and doled out so much gold that it caused a devaluation of the commodity’s value. Like its predecessor, Mali’s prosperity rested on its dominance over trade routes. The empire’s capital Timbuktu lay at the end of the River Niger, which connected the African interior to the Atlantic coast and formed the gateway into the Sahara desert from where Islamic traders crossed over when coming in from the North. This trade centre saw the passage of tradeable goods such as glassware, gold, salt, horses and even weapons, all of which earned the empire a sizeable portion of its tax revenues. Alternative income also flowed in from the exploitation of their valuable resources. Aside from its staggering wealth, Mali was built on the tenets of peace and prosperity, as described by Ibn Battuta:
“The Negroes possess some admirable qualities. They are seldom unjust and have a greater abhorrence of injustice than other people. Their Mansa shows no mercy to anyone least guilty of the act of injustice. There is complete security in their country.Neither traveller nor inhabitant has anything to fear from robbers or men of violence.”
Civil conflicts and the development of alternative trade routes would weaken the empire and pave way for its successor.
Songhai (15th-16th Century)
Songhai was the largest of the three states and marked the end of the Golden Age of Empires. This kingdom existed contemporaneously with Ghana, and was subdued and absorbed by the Mali Empire. Yet they remained a thorn in Mali’s flesh, constantly attacking important posts in the kingdom. In the early 1460s, however, Sunni Ali organized his forces and launched a consistent campaign against an already weakened Mali. This led to the growth of Songhai, which stretched from the Atlantic to present-day Niger. Like the empires before it, Songhai controlled the Saharan trade routes through important exchange cities like Timbuktu and Djenne. The leadership also promoted Islamic religion and education through the immigration of ambassadors from external Islamic nations and setting up schools all over the empire. The university in Timbuktu was expanded and greatly developed during this time. Over time, however, civil wars and political dissensions caused the kingdom to slowly wane. Attacks by the Moroccans in the mid-1500s dealt a death-blow to Songhai, as though inferior in number, they had guns, which were infinitely more superior to the spears and arrows wielded by the Songhai army.
Africa benefited immensely from trade with the outside world. However, these elaborate trade routes weaving through her interior to her trading ports laid the foundations for the exploitation of the continent’s most valuable resource yet, her children. Ports from the Mediterranean to the North, Atlantic to the West and the Indian Ocean to the East formed outlets through which this valuable resource was exported en masses. And for four hundred years, the slave trade thrived.
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